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afl-tmin.c
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afl-tmin.c
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/*
american fuzzy lop - test case minimizer
----------------------------------------
Written and maintained by Michal Zalewski <[email protected]>
Windows fork written by Axel "0vercl0k" Souchet <[email protected]>
Copyright 2017 Google Inc. All rights reserved.
Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
You may obtain a copy of the License at:
http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
A simple test case minimizer that takes an input file and tries to remove
as much data as possible while keeping the binary in a crashing state
*or* producing consistent instrumentation output (the mode is auto-selected
based on the initially observed behavior).
*/
#define _CRT_SECURE_NO_WARNINGS
#define _CRT_RAND_S
#define AFL_MAIN
#define VERSION "2.51b"
#include "config.h"
#include "types.h"
#include "debug.h"
#include "alloc-inl.h"
#include "hash.h"
#include <windows.h>
#include <io.h>
#include <direct.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <errno.h>
#include <signal.h>
#include <fcntl.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
static s32 child_pid; /* PID of the tested program */
static HANDLE child_handle,
child_thread_handle;
static char *dynamorio_dir;
static char *client_params;
int fuzz_iterations_max = 1, fuzz_iterations_current;
static CRITICAL_SECTION critical_section;
static u64 watchdog_timeout_time;
static u8 watchdog_enabled;
static u8 *target_cmd; /* command line of target */
static u8 *trace_bits, /* SHM with instrumentation bitmap */
*mask_bitmap; /* Mask for trace bits (-B) */
static u8 *in_file, /* Minimizer input test case */
*out_file, /* Minimizer output file */
*prog_in, /* Targeted program input file */
*target_path, /* Path to target binary */
*doc_path, /* Path to docs */
*at_file; /* Substitution string for @@ */
static u8* in_data; /* Input data for trimming */
static u32 in_len, /* Input data length */
orig_cksum, /* Original checksum */
total_execs, /* Total number of execs */
missed_hangs, /* Misses due to hangs */
missed_crashes, /* Misses due to crashes */
missed_paths, /* Misses due to exec path diffs */
exec_tmout = EXEC_TIMEOUT; /* Exec timeout (ms) */
static u64 mem_limit = MEM_LIMIT; /* Memory limit (MB) */
static HANDLE shm_handle; /* Handle of the SHM region */
static HANDLE pipe_handle; /* Handle of the name pipe */
static u64 name_seed; /* Random integer to have a unique shm/pipe name */
static HANDLE devnul_handle; /* Handle of the nul device */
static u8 sinkhole_stds = 1; /* Sink-hole stdout/stderr messages?*/
static char *fuzzer_id = NULL; /* The fuzzer ID or a randomized
seed allowing multiple instances */
static u8 crash_mode, /* Crash-centric mode? */
exit_crash, /* Treat non-zero exit as crash? */
edges_only, /* Ignore hit counts? */
exact_mode, /* Require path match for crashes? */
use_stdin = 1, /* Use stdin for program input? */
drioless = 0;
static volatile u8
stop_soon, /* Ctrl-C pressed? */
child_timed_out; /* Child timed out? */
/* Classify tuple counts. This is a slow & naive version, but good enough here. */
#define AREP4(_sym) (_sym), (_sym), (_sym), (_sym)
#define AREP8(_sym) AREP4(_sym), AREP4(_sym)
#define AREP16(_sym) AREP8(_sym), AREP8(_sym)
#define AREP32(_sym) AREP16(_sym), AREP16(_sym)
#define AREP64(_sym) AREP32(_sym), AREP32(_sym)
#define AREP128(_sym) AREP64(_sym), AREP64(_sym)
static const u8 count_class_lookup[256] = {
/* 0 - 3: 4 */ 0, 1, 2, 4,
/* 4 - 7: +4 */ AREP4(8),
/* 8 - 15: +8 */ AREP8(16),
/* 16 - 31: +16 */ AREP16(32),
/* 32 - 127: +96 */ AREP64(64), AREP32(64),
/* 128+: +128 */ AREP128(128)
};
static void classify_counts(u8* mem) {
u32 i = MAP_SIZE;
if (edges_only) {
while (i--) {
if (*mem) *mem = 1;
mem++;
}
} else {
while (i--) {
*mem = count_class_lookup[*mem];
mem++;
}
}
}
/* Apply mask to classified bitmap (if set). */
static void apply_mask(u32* mem, u32* mask) {
u32 i = (MAP_SIZE >> 2);
if (!mask) return;
while (i--) {
*mem &= ~*mask;
mem++;
mask++;
}
}
/* See if any bytes are set in the bitmap. */
static inline u8 anything_set(void) {
u32* ptr = (u32*)trace_bits;
u32 i = (MAP_SIZE >> 2);
while (i--) if (*(ptr++)) return 1;
return 0;
}
/* Get unix time in milliseconds */
static u64 get_cur_time(void) {
u64 ret;
FILETIME filetime;
GetSystemTimeAsFileTime(&filetime);
ret = (((u64)filetime.dwHighDateTime)<<32) + (u64)filetime.dwLowDateTime;
return ret / 10000;
}
/* Get unix time in microseconds */
static u64 get_cur_time_us(void) {
u64 ret;
FILETIME filetime;
GetSystemTimeAsFileTime(&filetime);
ret = (((u64)filetime.dwHighDateTime)<<32) + (u64)filetime.dwLowDateTime;
return ret / 10;
}
char *alloc_printf(const char *_str, ...) {
va_list argptr;
char* _tmp;
s32 _len;
va_start(argptr, _str);
_len = vsnprintf(NULL, 0, _str, argptr);
if (_len < 0) FATAL("Whoa, snprintf() fails?!");
_tmp = ck_alloc(_len + 1);
vsnprintf(_tmp, _len + 1, _str, argptr);
va_end(argptr);
return _tmp;
}
/* Get rid of shared memory and temp files (atexit handler). */
static void remove_shm(void) {
UnmapViewOfFile(trace_bits);
CloseHandle(shm_handle);
if (prog_in) unlink(prog_in); /* Ignore errors */
}
/* Configure shared memory. */
static void setup_shm(void) {
char* shm_str = NULL;
unsigned int seeds[2];
u64 name_seed;
u8 attempts = 0;
while(attempts < 5) {
if(fuzzer_id == NULL) {
// If it is null, it means we have to generate a random seed to name the instance
rand_s(&seeds[0]);
rand_s(&seeds[1]);
name_seed = ((u64)seeds[0] << 32) | seeds[1];
fuzzer_id = (char *)alloc_printf("%I64x", name_seed);
}
shm_str = (char *)alloc_printf("afl_shm_%s", fuzzer_id);
shm_handle = CreateFileMapping(
INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE, // use paging file
NULL, // default security
PAGE_READWRITE, // read/write access
0, // maximum object size (high-order DWORD)
MAP_SIZE, // maximum object size (low-order DWORD)
(char *)shm_str); // name of mapping object
if(shm_handle == NULL) {
if(GetLastError() == ERROR_ALREADY_EXISTS) {
// We need another attempt to find a unique section name
attempts++;
ck_free(shm_str);
ck_free(fuzzer_id);
fuzzer_id = NULL;
continue;
}
else {
PFATAL("CreateFileMapping failed");
}
}
// We found a section name that works!
break;
}
if(attempts == 5) {
FATAL("Could not find a section name.\n");
}
atexit(remove_shm);
ck_free(shm_str);
trace_bits = (u8 *)MapViewOfFile(
shm_handle, // handle to map object
FILE_MAP_ALL_ACCESS, // read/write permission
0,
0,
MAP_SIZE
);
if (!trace_bits) PFATAL("MapViewOfFile() failed");
}
/* Read initial file. */
static void read_initial_file(void) {
struct stat st;
s32 fd = _open(in_file, O_RDONLY | O_BINARY);
if (fd < 0) PFATAL("Unable to open '%s'", in_file);
if (fstat(fd, &st) || !st.st_size)
FATAL("Zero-sized input file.");
if (st.st_size >= TMIN_MAX_FILE)
FATAL("Input file is too large (%u MB max)", TMIN_MAX_FILE / 1024 / 1024);
in_len = st.st_size;
in_data = ck_alloc_nozero(in_len);
ck_read(fd, in_data, in_len, in_file);
_close(fd);
OKF("Read %u byte%s from '%s'.", in_len, in_len == 1 ? "" : "s", in_file);
}
/* Write output file. */
static void write_to_file(u8* path, u8* mem, u32 len) {
s32 ret;
_unlink(path); /* Ignore errors */
ret = _open(path, O_RDWR | O_CREAT | O_EXCL | O_BINARY, 0600);
if (ret < 0) PFATAL("Unable to create '%s'", path);
ck_write(ret, mem, len, path);
_lseek(ret, 0, SEEK_SET);
_close(ret);
}
//quoting on Windows is weird
size_t ArgvQuote(char *in, char *out) {
int needs_quoting = 0;
size_t size = 0;
char *p = in;
size_t i;
//check if quoting is necessary
if(strchr(in, ' ')) needs_quoting = 1;
if(strchr(in, '\"')) needs_quoting = 1;
if(strchr(in, '\t')) needs_quoting = 1;
if(strchr(in, '\n')) needs_quoting = 1;
if(strchr(in, '\v')) needs_quoting = 1;
if(!needs_quoting) {
size = strlen(in);
if(out) memcpy(out, in, size);
return size;
}
if(out) out[size] = '\"';
size++;
while(*p) {
size_t num_backslashes = 0;
while((*p) && (*p == '\\')) {
p++;
num_backslashes++;
}
if(*p == 0) {
for(i = 0; i < (num_backslashes*2); i++) {
if(out) out[size] = '\\';
size++;
}
break;
} else if(*p == '\"') {
for(i = 0; i < (num_backslashes*2 + 1); i++) {
if(out) out[size] = '\\';
size++;
}
if(out) out[size] = *p;
size++;
} else {
for(i = 0; i < num_backslashes; i++) {
if(out) out[size] = '\\';
size++;
}
if(out) out[size] = *p;
size++;
}
p++;
}
if(out) out[size] = '\"';
size++;
return size;
}
char *argv_to_cmd(char** argv) {
u32 len = 0, i;
u8* buf, *ret;
//todo shell-escape
for (i = 0; argv[i]; i++)
len += ArgvQuote(argv[i], NULL) + 1;
if(!len) FATAL("Error creating command line");
buf = ret = ck_alloc(len);
for (i = 0; argv[i]; i++) {
u32 l = ArgvQuote(argv[i], buf);
buf += l;
*(buf++) = ' ';
}
ret[len-1] = 0;
return ret;
}
static void create_target_process(char** argv) {
char* cmd;
char* pipe_name;
char *buf;
char *pidfile = NULL;
FILE *fp;
size_t pidsize;
BOOL inherit_handles = TRUE;
HANDLE hJob = NULL;
JOBOBJECT_EXTENDED_LIMIT_INFORMATION job_limit;
STARTUPINFO si;
PROCESS_INFORMATION pi;
pipe_name = (char *)alloc_printf("\\\\.\\pipe\\afl_pipe_%s", fuzzer_id);
pipe_handle = CreateNamedPipe(
pipe_name, // pipe name
PIPE_ACCESS_DUPLEX, // read/write access
0,
1, // max. instances
512, // output buffer size
512, // input buffer size
20000, // client time-out
NULL); // default security attribute
if (pipe_handle == INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE) {
FATAL("CreateNamedPipe failed, GLE=%d.\n", GetLastError());
}
target_cmd = argv_to_cmd(argv);
if (drioless) {
char *static_config = alloc_printf("%s:1", fuzzer_id);
if (static_config == NULL) {
FATAL("Cannot allocate static_config.");
}
SetEnvironmentVariable("AFL_STATIC_CONFIG", static_config);
cmd = alloc_printf("%s", target_cmd);
ck_free(static_config);
} else {
pidfile = alloc_printf("childpid_%s.txt", fuzzer_id);
cmd = alloc_printf(
"%s\\drrun.exe -pidfile %s -no_follow_children -c winafl.dll %s -fuzz_iterations 1 -fuzzer_id %s -- %s",
dynamorio_dir, pidfile, client_params, fuzzer_id, target_cmd
);
}
ZeroMemory(&si, sizeof(si));
si.cb = sizeof(si);
ZeroMemory(&pi, sizeof(pi));
if (sinkhole_stds) {
si.hStdOutput = si.hStdError = devnul_handle;
si.dwFlags |= STARTF_USESTDHANDLES;
} else {
inherit_handles = FALSE;
}
if (mem_limit != 0) {
hJob = CreateJobObject(NULL, NULL);
if (hJob == NULL) {
FATAL("CreateJobObject failed, GLE=%d.\n", GetLastError());
}
ZeroMemory(&job_limit, sizeof(job_limit));
job_limit.BasicLimitInformation.LimitFlags = JOB_OBJECT_LIMIT_PROCESS_MEMORY;
job_limit.ProcessMemoryLimit = mem_limit * 1024 * 1024;
if (!SetInformationJobObject(
hJob,
JobObjectExtendedLimitInformation,
&job_limit,
sizeof(job_limit)
)) {
FATAL("SetInformationJobObject failed, GLE=%d.\n", GetLastError());
}
}
if (!CreateProcess(NULL, cmd, NULL, NULL, inherit_handles, CREATE_SUSPENDED, NULL, NULL, &si, &pi)) {
FATAL("CreateProcess failed, GLE=%d.\n", GetLastError());
}
child_handle = pi.hProcess;
child_thread_handle = pi.hThread;
if (mem_limit != 0) {
if (!AssignProcessToJobObject(hJob, child_handle)) {
FATAL("AssignProcessToJobObject failed, GLE=%d.\n", GetLastError());
}
}
ResumeThread(child_thread_handle);
watchdog_timeout_time = get_cur_time() + exec_tmout;
watchdog_enabled = 1;
if (!ConnectNamedPipe(pipe_handle, NULL)) {
if (GetLastError() != ERROR_PIPE_CONNECTED) {
FATAL("ConnectNamedPipe failed, GLE=%d.\n", GetLastError());
}
}
watchdog_enabled = 0;
if (drioless == 0) {
//by the time pipe has connected the pidfile must have been created
fp = fopen(pidfile, "rb");
if (!fp) {
FATAL("Error opening pidfile.txt");
}
fseek(fp,0,SEEK_END);
pidsize = ftell(fp);
fseek(fp,0,SEEK_SET);
buf = (char *)malloc(pidsize+1);
fread(buf, pidsize, 1, fp);
buf[pidsize] = 0;
fclose(fp);
remove(pidfile);
child_pid = atoi(buf);
free(buf);
ck_free(pidfile);
}
else {
child_pid = pi.dwProcessId;
}
ck_free(target_cmd);
ck_free(cmd);
ck_free(pipe_name);
}
static void destroy_target_process(int wait_exit) {
char* kill_cmd;
BOOL still_alive = TRUE;
STARTUPINFO si;
PROCESS_INFORMATION pi;
EnterCriticalSection(&critical_section);
if(!child_handle) {
goto leave;
}
if(WaitForSingleObject(child_handle, wait_exit) != WAIT_TIMEOUT) {
goto done;
}
// nudge the child process only if dynamorio is used
if(drioless) {
TerminateProcess(child_handle, 0);
} else {
kill_cmd = alloc_printf("%s\\drconfig.exe -nudge_pid %d 0 1", dynamorio_dir, child_pid);
ZeroMemory( &si, sizeof(si) );
si.cb = sizeof(si);
ZeroMemory( &pi, sizeof(pi) );
if(!CreateProcess(NULL, kill_cmd, NULL, NULL, FALSE, 0, NULL, NULL, &si, &pi)) {
FATAL("CreateProcess failed, GLE=%d.\n", GetLastError());
}
CloseHandle(pi.hProcess);
CloseHandle(pi.hThread);
ck_free(kill_cmd);
}
still_alive = WaitForSingleObject(child_handle, 2000) == WAIT_TIMEOUT;
if(still_alive) {
//wait until the child process exits
ZeroMemory( &si, sizeof(si) );
si.cb = sizeof(si);
ZeroMemory( &pi, sizeof(pi) );
kill_cmd = alloc_printf("taskkill /PID %d /F", child_pid);
if(!CreateProcess(NULL, kill_cmd, NULL, NULL, FALSE, 0, NULL, NULL, &si, &pi)) {
FATAL("CreateProcess failed, GLE=%d.\n", GetLastError());
}
CloseHandle(pi.hProcess);
CloseHandle(pi.hThread);
ck_free(kill_cmd);
if(WaitForSingleObject(child_handle, 20000) == WAIT_TIMEOUT) {
FATAL("Cannot kill child process\n");
}
}
done:
CloseHandle(child_handle);
CloseHandle(child_thread_handle);
child_handle = NULL;
child_thread_handle = NULL;
leave:
//close the pipe
if(pipe_handle) {
DisconnectNamedPipe(pipe_handle);
CloseHandle(pipe_handle);
pipe_handle = NULL;
}
LeaveCriticalSection(&critical_section);
}
DWORD WINAPI watchdog_timer( LPVOID lpParam ) {
u64 current_time;
while(1) {
Sleep(1000);
current_time = get_cur_time();
if(watchdog_enabled && (current_time > watchdog_timeout_time)) {
child_timed_out = 1;
destroy_target_process(0);
}
}
}
static void setup_watchdog_timer() {
watchdog_enabled = 0;
InitializeCriticalSection(&critical_section);
CreateThread(NULL, 0, watchdog_timer, 0, 0, NULL);
}
static int is_child_running() {
return (child_handle && (WaitForSingleObject(child_handle, 0 ) == WAIT_TIMEOUT));
}
/* Execute target application. Returns 0 if the changes are a dud, or
1 if they should be kept. */
static u8 run_target(char** argv, u8* mem, u32 len, u8 first_run) {
char command[] = "F";
DWORD num_read;
char result = 0;
u8 child_crashed;
u32 cksum;
write_to_file(prog_in, mem, len);
if(!is_child_running()) {
destroy_target_process(0);
create_target_process(argv);
fuzz_iterations_current = 0;
}
child_timed_out = 0;
memset(trace_bits, 0, MAP_SIZE);
MemoryBarrier();
WriteFile(
pipe_handle, // handle to pipe
command, // buffer to write from
1, // number of bytes to write
&num_read, // number of bytes written
NULL); // not overlapped I/O
watchdog_timeout_time = get_cur_time() + exec_tmout;
if(exec_tmout) {
watchdog_enabled = 1;
}
ReadFile(pipe_handle, &result, 1, &num_read, NULL);
if(exec_tmout) {
watchdog_enabled = 0;
}
MemoryBarrier();
/* Clean up bitmap, analyze exit condition, etc. */
classify_counts(trace_bits);
apply_mask((u32*)trace_bits, (u32*)mask_bitmap);
total_execs++;
fuzz_iterations_current++;
if(fuzz_iterations_current == fuzz_iterations_max) {
destroy_target_process(2000);
}
if (stop_soon) {
SAYF(cRST cLRD "\n+++ Minimization aborted by user +++\n" cRST);
exit(1);
}
child_crashed = result == 'C';
/* Always discard inputs that time out. */
if (child_timed_out) {
missed_hangs++;
return 0;
}
/* Handle crashing inputs depending on current mode. */
if (child_crashed) {
if (first_run) crash_mode = 1;
if (crash_mode) {
if (!exact_mode) return 1;
} else {
missed_crashes++;
return 0;
}
} else
/* Handle non-crashing inputs appropriately. */
if (crash_mode) {
missed_paths++;
return 0;
}
cksum = hash32(trace_bits, MAP_SIZE, HASH_CONST);
if (first_run) orig_cksum = cksum;
if (orig_cksum == cksum) return 1;
missed_paths++;
return 0;
}
/* Find first power of two greater or equal to val. */
static u32 next_p2(u32 val) {
u32 ret = 1;
while (val > ret) ret <<= 1;
return ret;
}
/* Actually minimize! */
static void minimize(char** argv) {
static u32 alpha_map[256];
u8* tmp_buf = ck_alloc_nozero(in_len);
u32 orig_len = in_len, stage_o_len;
u32 del_len, set_len, del_pos, set_pos, i, alpha_size, cur_pass = 0;
u32 syms_removed, alpha_del0 = 0, alpha_del1, alpha_del2, alpha_d_total = 0;
u8 changed_any, prev_del;
/***********************
* BLOCK NORMALIZATION *
***********************/
set_len = next_p2(in_len / TMIN_SET_STEPS);
set_pos = 0;
if (set_len < TMIN_SET_MIN_SIZE) set_len = TMIN_SET_MIN_SIZE;
ACTF(cBRI "Stage #0: " cRST "One-time block normalization...");
while (set_pos < in_len) {
u8 res;
u32 use_len = MIN(set_len, in_len - set_pos);
for (i = 0; i < use_len; i++)
if (in_data[set_pos + i] != '0') break;
if (i != use_len) {
memcpy(tmp_buf, in_data, in_len);
memset(tmp_buf + set_pos, '0', use_len);
res = run_target(argv, tmp_buf, in_len, 0);
if (res) {
memset(in_data + set_pos, '0', use_len);
changed_any = 1;
alpha_del0 += use_len;
}
}
set_pos += set_len;
}
alpha_d_total += alpha_del0;
OKF("Block normalization complete, %u byte%s replaced.", alpha_del0,
alpha_del0 == 1 ? "" : "s");
next_pass:
ACTF(cYEL "--- " cBRI "Pass #%u " cYEL "---", ++cur_pass);
changed_any = 0;
/******************
* BLOCK DELETION *
******************/
del_len = next_p2(in_len / TRIM_START_STEPS);
stage_o_len = in_len;
ACTF(cBRI "Stage #1: " cRST "Removing blocks of data...");
next_del_blksize:
if (!del_len) del_len = 1;
del_pos = 0;
prev_del = 1;
SAYF(cGRA " Block length = %u, remaining size = %u\n" cRST,
del_len, in_len);
while (del_pos < in_len) {
u8 res;
s32 tail_len;
tail_len = in_len - del_pos - del_len;
if (tail_len < 0) tail_len = 0;
/* If we have processed at least one full block (initially, prev_del == 1),
and we did so without deleting the previous one, and we aren't at the
very end of the buffer (tail_len > 0), and the current block is the same
as the previous one... skip this step as a no-op. */
if (!prev_del && tail_len && !memcmp(in_data + del_pos - del_len,
in_data + del_pos, del_len)) {
del_pos += del_len;
continue;
}
prev_del = 0;
/* Head */
memcpy(tmp_buf, in_data, del_pos);
/* Tail */
memcpy(tmp_buf + del_pos, in_data + del_pos + del_len, tail_len);
res = run_target(argv, tmp_buf, del_pos + tail_len, 0);
if (res) {
memcpy(in_data, tmp_buf, del_pos + tail_len);
prev_del = 1;
in_len = del_pos + tail_len;
changed_any = 1;
} else del_pos += del_len;
}
if (del_len > 1 && in_len >= 1) {
del_len /= 2;
goto next_del_blksize;
}
OKF("Block removal complete, %u bytes deleted.", stage_o_len - in_len);
if (!in_len && changed_any)
WARNF(cLRD "Down to zero bytes - check the command line and mem limit!" cRST);
if (cur_pass > 1 && !changed_any) goto finalize_all;
/*************************
* ALPHABET MINIMIZATION *
*************************/
alpha_size = 0;
alpha_del1 = 0;
syms_removed = 0;
memset(alpha_map, 0, 256 * sizeof(u32));
for (i = 0; i < in_len; i++) {
if (!alpha_map[in_data[i]]) alpha_size++;
alpha_map[in_data[i]]++;
}
ACTF(cBRI "Stage #2: " cRST "Minimizing symbols (%u code point%s)...",
alpha_size, alpha_size == 1 ? "" : "s");
for (i = 0; i < 256; i++) {
u32 r;
u8 res;
if (i == '0' || !alpha_map[i]) continue;
memcpy(tmp_buf, in_data, in_len);
for (r = 0; r < in_len; r++)
if (tmp_buf[r] == i) tmp_buf[r] = '0';
res = run_target(argv, tmp_buf, in_len, 0);
if (res) {
memcpy(in_data, tmp_buf, in_len);
syms_removed++;
alpha_del1 += alpha_map[i];
changed_any = 1;
}
}
alpha_d_total += alpha_del1;
OKF("Symbol minimization finished, %u symbol%s (%u byte%s) replaced.",
syms_removed, syms_removed == 1 ? "" : "s",
alpha_del1, alpha_del1 == 1 ? "" : "s");
/**************************
* CHARACTER MINIMIZATION *
**************************/
alpha_del2 = 0;
ACTF(cBRI "Stage #3: " cRST "Character minimization...");
memcpy(tmp_buf, in_data, in_len);
for (i = 0; i < in_len; i++) {
u8 res, orig = tmp_buf[i];
if (orig == '0') continue;